Differential methylation of linoleic acid pathway genes is associated with PTSD symptoms - a longitudinal study with Burundian soldiers returning from a war zone.

Soldiers may be exposed to traumatic stress during combat deployment and thus are at risk for developing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Genetic and epigenetic evidence suggests that PTSD is linked to forming stress-related memories. In the current study, we investigated post-deployment associations of PTSD symptoms with differential DNA methylation in a sample of Burundian soldiers returning from the African Union Mission in Somalia's war zone. We used a matched longitudinal study design to explore epigenetic changes associated with PTSD symptoms in N = 191 participants. PTSD symptoms and saliva samples were collected at 1-3 (t1) and 9-14 months (t2) after the return of the soldiers to their home base. Individuals with either worsening or improving PTSD symptoms were matched for age, stressful, traumatic and self-perpetrated events prior to the post-assessment, traumatic and violent experiences between the post- and the follow-up assessment, and violence experienced during childhood. A mixed model analysis was conducted to identify top nominally significantly differentially methylated genes, which were then used to perform a gene enrichment analysis. The linoleic acid metabolism pathway was significantly associated with post-deployment PTSD symptoms, after accounting for multiple comparisons. Linoleic acid has been linked to memory and immune related processes in previous research. Our findings suggest that differential methylation of linoleic acid pathway genes is associated with PTSD and thus may merit closer inspection as a possible mediator of resilience.

NETfacts: An integrated intervention at the individual and collective level to treat communities affected by organized violence.

War and crises affect mental health, social attitudes, and cultural norms, which can exacerbate the state of long-term insecurity. With decades of armed conflict, the Democratic Republic of Congo is one example, and violence has become normalized in civilian settings. In this study, we tested the effectiveness of the NETfacts health system, an integrated model of evidence-based individual trauma treatment (Narrative Exposure Therapy [NET]) and a trauma-informed community-based intervention (NETfacts). Alongside changes in mental health outcomes (posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, social disapproval, and shame) we also investigated change in attitudes, including rape myth acceptance, stigmatization of survivors of sexual violence, and skepticism about the reintegration of former combatants. To test whether the additional community intervention is superior to individual NET alone, we implemented a randomized controlled design with six villages and interviewed a sample of 1,066 community members. Our results demonstrate that the NETfacts health system in comparison with NET alone more effectively reduced rape myth acceptance and with it ongoing victimization and perpetration. Community members of the NETfacts group also presented with less stigmatizing attitudes against survivors of sexual violence. Skepticism about the reintegration of former combatants declined in both groups. NETfacts appears to have increased motivation to engage in individual treatment. Synergizing the healing effects of individual and collective trauma exposure, the NETfacts health system appears to be an effective and scalable approach to correct degrading or ignominious norms and restore functioning and mental health in postconflict communities.

Is shame the missing link between traumatic experiences and post-traumatic stress disorder in Burundian children living on the streets?

BACKGROUND: Shame is an emotion reflecting an anticipated social devaluation of the self. It is strongly associated with experiences of humiliation and rejection in early life. Individuals suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) often struggle with shame. However, little is known about how shame contributes to the development and maintenance of PTSD symptoms in children. The present study investigated the ways childhood exposure to human-induced traumatic events promotes a coping mechanism of defeat and withdrawal facilitated by the experience of shame. We tested a dose-response relationship between lifetime experienced traumatic event types and PTSD in children using shame as a mediator. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured interviews with 33 male children who lived and worked on the streets of Bujumbura, the capital of Burundi at the time of data collection. We assessed self-reported PTSD symptom severity, lifetime traumatic event load, violence experienced on the streets and shame intensity. RESULTS: Mediation analyses revealed a significant indirect effect of lifetime traumatic events on PTSD symptom severity through shame intensity and a significant indirect effect of violence experienced on the streets on PTSD symptom severity through shame intensity. CONCLUSION: Our study suggests the mediating role of shame between traumatic experiences as well as violent experiences and PTSD symptom severity in children living on the streets. Shame in children suffering from PTSD seems to play a crucial role in the development and maintenance of PTSD symptoms.